SEMIOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS IN PERSIAN CALLIGRAPHY
Mohammad. H. Alavi
Istanbul, 2023
Abstract
Iranian calligraphy holds a prominent place in the realm of art, steeped in historical significance and cultural richness. This study employs a semiotic perspective and discourse analysis as its foundational research approach to delve into the multifaceted world of Iranian calligraphy. While calligraphy has evolved over time with formal transformations, particularly in techniques and execution, the emergence of the Saqqakhaneh school in the 1960s marked a significant turning point, introducing novel interpretations and dimensions to this venerable art form. Drawing inspiration from the philosophical insights of Jacques Derrida, this article embarks on a semiotic exploration of select historical calligraphic works. It seeks to unravel the nuanced layers of meaning within these works, shedding light on their cultural, artistic, and philosophical dimensions. Through this analysis, we aim to contribute to a deeper understanding of Iranian calligraphy as a complex semiotic system.
Keywords: Semiotics, Calligraphy, Saqqakhaneh, Discourse Analysis, Deconstruction
Introduction
In today’s world, semiotics, despite scattered references in various cultures dating back to ancient times, has emerged as a new science in the 20th century, with its subjects and foundations consolidated into a unified system. This discipline is nearly independent of the fundamentals of psychology and possesses specific objectives today. Although various approaches to its foundations emerged as the knowledge of semiotics developed in the 20th century, semiotics cannot and should not be confined or presented within specific methods and objectives today. Semiotics comprises numerous different schools, and therefore, there is often very little consensus among contemporary theorists regarding topics, fundamental concepts, and methodological tools. This knowledge is employed as an analytical tool in various sciences and fields of knowledge, with each approach taking different paths. Most importantly, semiotics is used in the study of language. Furthermore, it serves as an analytical tool in fields such as literature studies, mathematics, relationships between computers and machines, architecture, cinema and theater, painting, media, anthropology, social sciences, political science, animal behavior and communication studies, biology, and more.
When examining the history of semiotics, references are often made to individuals such as Aristotle, the Stoics, Saint Augustine, and John Locke, as well as their diverse yet sometimes closely related works. Some semiotic subjects can also be found in Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, and Islamic cultures and languages. Additionally, traces of discussions related to the central axis of semiotic debates, namely “meaning,” can be found in the works of authors and theorists in the fields of Iranian rhetoric, jurisprudential principles, and logic.
A comprehensive interpretation of semiotics should be framed as the study of symbolic systems, and as mentioned, it is essential to emphasize that specific tools and methods are required to examine each of these systems in order to demonstrate the various symbolic systems present in life. Therefore, semiotics, which is the science of investigating different sign systems within the realm of human thought, employs various tools and methods. In other words, it systematically examines all factors involved in the production and interpretation of signs during the process of signification. Semiotics is recognized as an interdisciplinary science. It is so heterogeneous in its methods and objectives that it cannot be considered a single discipline. To put it more plainly, semiotics is an interdisciplinary field that accommodates various approaches and carries diverse philosophical definitions related to its subject of study.
1. EASTERN CALLIGRAPHY
Art has always strived to establish a connection with its audience to convey its intended message and meaning. (Fig 1) Calligraphy, one of the unique art forms where the message itself is conveyed through its constituent elements (form, motif, color, etc.), is no exception to this rule. In Islamic art, calligraphy is a prominent art form that focuses on both decorative and sometimes functional use across various domains. Indeed, in architecture and other artistic expressions such as metalwork, pottery, tiles, wood carving, textiles, carpets, and inscriptions, various styles of calligraphy have been employed alongside text as ornamental embellishments. From the 3rd and 4th centuries onwards, we can observe the use of all kinds of scripts in fabrics. Gradually, calligraphy started making its presence felt in carpet art as well, with the earliest examples of carpets containing Quranic verses dating back to the 3rd century Hijri.
1. This manuscript contains the first three verses of Surah An-Nisa, dating back to the years 654-750 H. (equivalent to 1335-1256 CE). The golden header of the surah is inscribed in the Kufic script, while the Arabic verses are written in the Mohaghegh script. Additionally, there is a faithful Persian translation of the verses in the Sülüs script.
The art of calligraphy, within the context of Iranian-Islamic art, has been employed as a decorative element to a greater extent than any other form of ornamentation throughout the entire historical spectrum of this art. After incorporating the traditional patterns of Iranian art, along with elements of Iranian culture and calligraphy, inscriptions have gained significant prominence among certain Iranian designers in recent years.
The selection of poetry or written text plays a direct role in the composition of a work. Additionally, the positioning of lines or text in relation to the layout and frame, as well as their integration with other visual elements, is employed by authors aiming to convey their message in alignment with the aesthetic aspect of the work. In environmental art, the widespread use of writing and calligraphy can be examined from philosophical and sociological perspectives. However, the specific focus here is on paying special attention to the script system as a template that has, in fact, given rise to a comprehensive discourse in the history of Iranian art.
The main article endeavors to reexamine and study the evolution of calligraphy by adopting a discourse analysis and semiotic approach to the written word. Through this theoretical framework, the concept of discourse and inter-discourse challenges enable a macro-semiotic analysis of developments in contemporary art. Discourse theory investigates how signifiers are anchored in the field of discourse, allowing for the identification and examination of the network of processes through which meaning is created and manifested within this discourse field. Finally, the analysis delves into the conflict dynamics surrounding the stability of meaning within the dialogue arena of calligraphy art. Prominent research, building upon this introduction, seeks answers to the following questions: What are the factors causing the transformation of visual-image signifiers in contemporary art discourse? What role has calligraphy played in contemporary discourses, and how has it impacted the evolution of contemporary art in recent years? (Fig 2)
2. This artwork was presented at the Bonhams London auction in October 2015. Oil on canvas, 212x166cm, 1971.
2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
2.1. Derrida and Deconstruction
Jacques Derrida is regarded by some as one of the most prominent philosophers of the late 20th century. By introducing the theory of deconstruction, he offered a fresh interpretation of the Western philosophical tradition, which had been hitherto unparalleled. According to Derrida, the entire philosophical tradition of the West is based on certain metaphysical foundations. Indeed, Derrida sought to question this foundation with the theory of deconstruction. Deconstruction, rooted in the ideas of Heidegger and Saussure, both structural linguists, ultimately traces back to Derrida’s readings of Plato’s works. This demonstrates that the Western philosophical tradition is deeply rooted in Platonic metaphysics.
Derrida argues that the meaning of every text is always deferred, and no text can ever possess a complete and eternal meaning. Therefore, absence constitutes the essence of writing, contrasting with the presence that is a fixed element of speech. In Western philosophy, according to Derrida, speech has always been preferred over writing. Derrida interprets this as logocentrism. He asserts that “word” or “logos” is the metaphysical core around which the entire Western philosophy is built. Meanwhile, writing has always been marginalized because it lacks “words” or “logos.”
Derrida, especially when confronted with any tendency to reduce ambiguity to singularity, makes references to Aristotle in philosophy. This tendency is called logos. It is the sovereignty of the proper name over philosophy and human thought (and human as a thinking being). Only things with proper names exist. Without a proper name, nothing is something; hence, it is nothing. This is essentially the denial of plurality. Instead, Derrida puts forward the idea of pure multiplicity in the notion of dissemination. The meaning in a metaphoric movement is multiple. Everything is a metaphor unless it is reduced to a unity with a proper name. Nothing begins with a proper name, neither man nor language. Initially, it is not logos but the plurality or dissemination of metaphors. The latter is the original movement, the original sin. To have multiple meanings is to have no meaning at all. And having an infinite number of meanings is the original sin! However, history changed this story by saying that everything and everyone has only one thing to say, namely, logos. The unity of logos countered the plurality of dissemination. This is the birth of logic and its rule over thinking. Before the rule of logic, thinking was alive with the proliferation of metaphors. Derrida, using terms such as Eurocentrism, Phallogocentrism, and Logocentrism, indicates that Western philosophy cannot transcend a self-centered perspective rooted in metaphysics. In this philosophy, interactions with the Other (in terms of gender, nationality, or language system) do not play a role, and the world is interpreted by ignoring the Other. Post- structuralist approaches have proposed various theories regarding the acts of interpretation and understanding. For example, Bakhtin, in his dialogism approach, suggests that our understanding of something is always shaped by its relationship with something else. It is also debated that here, any proposition can only be meaningful when addressed to another. Derrida emphasizes that without placing the other and the self, no system has meaning. The Other is always present within itself, and individuality (or individual identity) is an abstract and impossible concept without placing the Other. The strategy of differentiation becomes highly significant here, as it involves placing the Other within closed systems. However, the relationship between literary language and the Other is crucial because Derrida introduces entirely new and original issues in this context. Derrida always defines literary language as a language that addresses the Other, and
the issue is that the Other addressed is not always present. A deconstructive reading, in practice, is the act of placing the Other within language.
Deconstruction is a philosophical theory that claims the meaning of any text is concealed within a complex array of both explicit and implicit social intentions. This perspective emphasizes that every astute reader should be able to discern the invisible and hidden points between the lines of a text, and be aware that every text addresses a cultural and social context. Therefore, within the deconstructive model, the act of reading is considered noble and significant.
Derrida also introduced the concept of duality and discussed binary oppositions in this context. Binary oppositions are inherent to the governing principles of the material world and are the amalgamation of the body and soul. Naturally, these meanings have representations in human art, including visual motifs. Art sometimes reflects these meanings as they are, while at other times, it depicts them in the form of symbols and signs. Thus, the contrasts in visual artworks do not always signify conflict, and in some works, they complement and find meaning side by side.
2.2. Discourse Analysis
The concept of discourse emphasizes the social processes that generate meaning. Discourse goes beyond language; discourses always involve language but also encompass actions, interactions, valuations, beliefs, feelings, bodies, clothing, non-linguistic symbols, objects, tools, technologies, time, and space (Sojoudi, 2013). Discourses are codes, or more precisely, encoded signs that support mechanisms for producing meaning and value, stabilizing power, and positioning rival discourses, either special and over-encoded signs or, in other words, marked signs (Sojoudi, 1393).
This study, employing discourse analysis, examines the historical investigation of calligraphy as well as the semiotics of prominent artistic examples in different periods. Discourse analysis is an approach aimed at analyzing the texts, sounds, or linguistic signs and significant signifiers surrounding an event. The goal of this research is not to evaluate the technical and aesthetic value of calligraphy works but to examine these works as texts, investigating how the signifier functions within them. Among the distinctive features of this art is its multi-systematic structure within the semiotic framework. Therefore, each calligraphy work is considered as a text containing multiple layers of text. What is crucial here is how this text, comprising different layers of text and its textual encoding layers, conveys meaning and how it deals with the transmission of meaning. In this study, a series of calligraphy works have been selected for analysis through layered semiotics. The methodology involves an examination of the selected work on two levels: the verbal and non-verbal.
In the non-linguistic layer, visual elements such as line, surface, shape, color, light and dark texture, or open and closed shadow, as well as visual relationships like proportion, balance, contrast, rhythm, and composition are studied. In fact, the non-linguistic layer is examined to see which implicit meanings it adds to the linguistic meaning of the text. One of the hypotheses explored in this research was how verbal signs carry meaning alongside non-verbal signs. In fact, case studies also reveal that these two systems convey meaning together. However, what is crucial is that the way meaning is conveyed differs in each work. Another hypothesis was that the cultural identity in calligraphy could be elucidated through the analysis of semiotic elements in calligraphy art. This hypothesis can be substantiated through case studies since artistic signs are deeply rooted in the culture of every society. Analyzing the semiotics of calligraphy as a form of sign formation enables us to examine a society’s cultural identity through the binary systems of writing and visual elements.
3. Sample Work Analysis
3.1. Islamic Influence on Iranian Art
Before the advent of Islam, various scripts like cuneiform, Pahlavi, and Avestan were prevalent in Iran. However, with the arrival of Islam, our ancestors embraced the Arabic alphabet and script. The history and writing method of the Arabic script do not predate Islam; it took shape during the early years of Islamic expansion and conquests. While Iranians adopted their current script from the Arabs, they played a significant role in its evolution and transformation into the art of calligraphy. The introduction of dots into the Arabic alphabet and the creation of Arabic diacritics were efforts to prevent mispronunciation of the Quranic text by non-Arabic speakers, including Iranians.
In the example below (Fig 3), we see a work from the 18th century containing verses from the Quran, written in naskh script. This work serves as an illustration of the evolution and transformation of the script into a refined form of calligraphy over time, an art form that continues to hold profound cultural and artistic significance in Iran.
3. From the 18th Century, New York, Columbia University
The presented work, dating back to the 18th century, is housed at Columbia University in New York. This artifact provides a tangible link to the historical evolution of calligraphy and the cultural heritage of Iran. The fact that it is preserved within the collection of Columbia University underscores the global significance of Iranian calligraphy as a subject of academic study and cultural appreciation.
In the early 1700s, we encounter a Nasta’liq calligraphy page from the Quran. This page is a remarkable representation of calligraphy artistry, particularly in the Nasta’liq script, accompanied by interlinear translation and commentary in the Persian language. The page is richly adorned with intricate golden illumination.
When examining this work textually, we find that it provides us with a unique opportunity to explore not just an old calligraphy piece , but also a discourse. Beyond the surface meaning, we can analyze the formal aspects of the words, techniques employed in writing, and even uncover the meanings of sentences. Such an investigation will offer insights into the existence of this work.
To truly analyze this piece, we must first approach it not merely as an old artistic artifact but as a discourse. By considering the transcendent existence of the work, regardless of its apparent meaning, we can explore its textual layers and implicit dimensions.
Taking a semiotic perspective, we can first recognize that this work was originally composed for Iranian readers. Ideologically, the audience of this art piece has different roots from the message conveyed in the work. Language plays a crucial historical role in the formation of ideology. Therefore, in this religious text, the author, as the carrier of ideology, has Arabized the words to facilitate their pronunciation for Iranian readers. Additionally, the author has gone further by providing the Persian transcription of Arabic words, effectively conveying the meanings of these words in Persian, which are inscribed below the lines.
3.2. Mir İmad Hasani
In the next example, we will examine a work by one of the most significant masters in the history of calligraphy. (Fig 4)
4. Mir Emad Hasani, 16th Century
Mir Emad Hasani, a prominent figure of the 16th century, is recognized as one of the most influential artists in the development of Nastaliq calligraphy. The artwork under consideration here is a calligraphic piece that we will subject to semiotic analysis. Without relying on any previously acquired knowledge, we will once again scrutinize this work as a discourse, aiming to discern its functions and salient aspects.
From a visual perspective, this artwork can be dissected into three distinctive sections: the primary calligraphic composition, the embellishments, and the artist’s autograph. In the primary section, the calligrapher has meticulously selected two verses by Saadi, imbued with religious and moral themes in their content, and presented them in the most aesthetically pleasing and potent manner. This choice reflects the prevailing sentiment of the era in which the artist lived, where piety and morality were closely intertwined and celebrated as quintessential human virtues.
However, a closer examination of the artist’s signature section (Fig 4.1) reveals an intriguing self-portrayal: “Poor, lowly, sinful, Imad al-Hasani, may sins be forgiven, and faults be concealed.”
4.1. The Artist’s Signature: Mir Emad Hasani in the 16th Century
The signature of the artist, Mir Emad Hasani, from the 16th century, provides valuable insights into his personal ethos within the socio-religious context of his time. This self-representation is a testament to the complex interplay of artistic identity, religious devotion, and societal norms that shaped the life and work of this esteemed calligrapher.
In his signature, Mir Emad Hasani employs a language of humility and self-deprecation, describing himself as “humble, lowly, sinful.” This choice of words is reflective of the prevailing religious and moral values of the period, wherein piety and moral rectitude were highly esteemed virtues. The artist’s willingness to depict himself as a sinner seeking forgiveness underscores the profound influence of religious thought on his self-perception.
Furthermore, the artist expresses a heartfelt plea for divine intervention, stating, “Imad al-Hasani, may sins be forgiven, and faults be concealed.” This invocation for divine pardon and concealment of faults reveals the artist’s deep spiritual commitment and desire for redemption. It also aligns with the broader cultural and religious milieu of 16th-century Iran, where themes of repentance and seeking God’s grace held significant importance.
Mir Emad Hasani’s signature, therefore, serves as more than a mere formality; it encapsulates the moral and spiritual aspirations of the artist, shedding light on the intricate relationship between calligraphy, religion, and personal identity in the cultural landscape of 16th-century Iran.
Upon a closer examination of the artist’s signature, one cannot help but notice the profound humility with which the artist chooses to present oneself. It is important to emphasize that the selection of such honorific titles within the signature does not signify an admission of guilt, but rather a profound demonstration of humility, indicative of a desire to occupy a position of insignificance in the eyes of God. This aspect underscores the enduring influence of Islamic ethics and morality, which extends over a broad spectrum. It suggests a profound engagement with the ideological tenets of Islam, a commitment that not only transcends the artist’s individuality but also positions the artist’s ego and persona subordinate to the teachings of Islam.
It is noteworthy that despite the artist’s Iranian heritage, the decision to articulate one’s name in an Arabic form can be interpreted as a deliberate effort to align with the prevailing ideology of the era. While this approach may find resonance within certain strands of Islamic thought, particularly from a Sufi perspective imbued with deep-rooted Islamic values, it is imperative to underscore that within the context of the artistic and historical discourse surrounding this work, there exists no tangible evidence to suggest that the artist was acknowledged as an autonomous human agent.
The Islamic viewpoint, which emanates from the doctrine of Tawhid, akin to the Platonic perspective, confines the act of creation solely to the domain of Allah. According to this theological belief, any creative endeavor undertaken by a human being must inherently reflect the existence of Allah; otherwise, it is liable to rejection, subjecting its creator to divine censure. Consequently, it becomes apparent that the artist responsible for this particular work crafted it as a product deeply entrenched within the prevailing ideological milieu of the epoch. It is in the shadow of this ideological hegemony that the artist chose to present oneself in such a manner.
Turning our attention to the illuminated segment of the artwork, we discern recurring traditional patterns executed in the customary colors often associated with Islamic architecture. These motifs bear a subtle yet significant allusion to Islam, serving as visual signifiers of the faith.
3.3. The Saqqakhane School
Calligraphy, over the course of history, has undergone changes due to the varied functions and styles adopted by calligraphers. However, it wasn’t until the emergence of the Saqqakhane school in the 1950s that these transformations extended beyond mere stylistic shifts to exert significant influence on the traditional form and context of this art. This study delves into the works of artists affiliated with the Saqqakhane school. But before doing so, it is pertinent to provide a general introduction to this school and its artists.
The Saqqakhane school, named for its use of religious elements and motifs, came into being in Iran approximately two decades after the onset of the modernist painting movement. Prominent members of this school included Hossein Zenderoudi, Parviz Tanavoli, Faramarz Pilaram, Sadeq Tabrizi, Masoud Arabshahi, Mansour Qandriz, Naser Owaisi, and Jazeh Tabatbai, most of whom were students at the Faculty of Decorative Arts.
Saqqakhane artists not only incorporated religious and traditional elements but also paid attention to modern Western styles in their works to communicate with both Iranian and global audiences. While their use of simplified forms in calligraphy and motifs lent their artworks a decorative and distinctly Iranian appearance, their approach to space and comfort, as well as the narrative styles they adapted from modern art, made their works resonate with modern art and Western abstract paintings. Elements such as color, texture, calligraphy, the utilization of motifs, and composition contributed to creating a unique atmosphere in Saqqakhane paintings that effectively bridged the gap with the modern world. Consequently, the Saqqakhane movement became one of the most significant contemporary art movements in Iran.
As the movement gained prominence, and due to the government’s efforts to establish a national art school, critics at the time subjected the Saqqakhane school to numerous reviews and criticisms. Some critics believed that the artists of this school failed to fully harness the talents and values of Iranian art. They argued that the images created by Saqqakhane artists were distant from the treasury of Iranian art and were not rich enough. Moreover, some considered Saqqakhane’s works to be superficial in their approach to traditional and local elements, rendering them merely appealing to tourists and inadequate for an informed audience.
3.3.1. Charles Hosein Zenderoudi
In this section, we will examine Charles Hossein Zenderoudi, one of the most prominent art figures in Iran in recent years and a key member of the Saqqakhaneh school. Zenderoudi’s works (Fig 5) represent a world that has ancient roots, closed and self-centered, yet his art is not considered mystic. It opens a dialogue with the past, unveiling the profound enchantment of lost civilizations. In his art, Zenderoudi imparts expression to letters through their relationship with architecture. Whether the architecture is geometric or lyrical, monochromatic or delicately colored, it no longer exudes absolute grandeur or satire. Instead, calligraphy contributes to the concept of structural space.
Charles Hossein Zenderoudi is an Iranian multimedia artist and the founder of the Saqqakhaneh movement, a genre of art in Iran that emerged in the late 1950s, blending national, folkloric, and religious elements with contemporary art. His use of cultural elements such as Arabic calligraphy in his works contributes to creating a unique brand of modernism specific to Iran, one that does not rely on Western interpretations. He describes his approach by saying, “I am a calligrapher, but not a calligraphist… Just as an architect uses stones or bricks to build a structure, I use calligraphy to create my paintings” (Artnet).
5. Hosein Zenderoudi, The Azure Bow, 1987
In the year 1987, Hosein Zenderoudi created a notable artwork titled “The Azure Bow.” This artwork, like many of Zenderoudi’s pieces, is a testament to his unique artistic vision and mastery of blending traditional and contemporary elements.
“The Azure Bow” carries a distinctive charm, characterized by Zenderoudi’s signature fusion of calligraphic and architectural elements. The title suggests a celestial connection, and this is often reflected in the color palette used by the artist. The deep azure hues employed in this artwork evoke a sense of the infinite sky, invoking a spiritual or cosmic dimension.
Zenderoudi’s choice of colors, intricate designs, and the interplay between calligraphy and architectural forms all contribute to the creation of a visual language that is both rooted in tradition and transcends it. “The Azure Bow” is a testament to Zenderoudi’s ability to bridge the gap between ancient cultural motifs and contemporary artistic expression.
As with many of his works, Zenderoudi’s “The Azure Bow” invites viewers to explore the intersection of tradition and modernity, offering a rich and layered visual experience that reflects his deep connection to Iranian heritage and his innovative approach to art.
Zenderoudi was born into a religious family and began his artistic journey during a time when the government’s focus was shifting towards national issues. In that era, national motifs held greater significance for artists, particularly those associated with the Saqqakhaneh movement. Upon closer examination of this artwork (Visual 5), we discover that, despite the artist’s ability to create art independently of religious ties, he could not entirely detach himself from the ideology of Islam, given its deep-rooted presence in Iranian history.
In this artwork, circular shapes allude to Islamic architecture and dome roofs. The lines used in the artwork, forming a symbol resembling the infinity sign in mathematics, are a reference to the concept of the oneness of Allah, His unity (Tawhid), and infinity. Importantly, our analysis primarily stems from within the artwork itself, employing a semiotic reading to delve into the sublayers of the text. The outcome of this interpretation reveals that the artist’s works serve as an ideological representation of culture and history that he incorporates into his art.
Conclusion
The content encapsulated within written messages serves as a reflection of deeply ingrained beliefs, convictions, societal tumult, and the pertinence of specific topics within the realm of contemporary human existence. This study has diligently traversed the terrain of textual elements, engaging in meticulous scrutiny, and delving into the labyrinthine intricacies of relevant external and intertextual factors. This concerted effort has ultimately paved the way for a profound comprehension of the messages encapsulated within the examined artworks.
In the realm of calligraphy, a discernible paradigm shift has transpired, bearing witness to an evolution from mere stylistic variations to a profound transformation in the traditional form and context of this art form. This transformation, notably catalyzed by the Saqqakhane movement in the 1950s, underscores the departure from conventional and purely ornamental functions towards the vanguard of conveying messages with profound societal implications. This seismic shift has ushered in an era where calligraphy serves not merely as a mode of communication but transcends these utilitarian constraints to manifest as a potent medium for the dissemination of messages aimed at the reconfiguration of cultural, societal, and political frameworks.
The scrutiny of message transmission to the viewer has yielded insights of paramount importance, elucidating the pivotal role it plays in the interpretation of these artworks. The comprehension of implicit layers of meaning within these messages is contingent upon an adept deciphering of the inherent meaning system intricately woven into the fabric of the script. The intricate interplay between written and visual motifs, judicious design choices, and the adroit utilization of visual elements assumes a multifaceted role. It not only endeavors to preserve aesthetic integrity but also seeks to extricate the viewer’s gaze from the superficial embellishments and motifs, anchoring it firmly in the nucleus of the medium’s substantive message content.
In summation, calligraphy, as an art form, transcends its conventional role as a mere vehicle for communication, emerging as a compelling medium for the articulation of messages. These messages, steeped in cultural, societal, and political significance, are unveiled through a nuanced interplay of textual and visual elements. The confluence of these elements engenders a profound semiotic tapestry that not only communicates but also resonates deeply within the intricate web of human consciousness.
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Visual References:
Fig. 1. (1250) Interlinear Qur’an Surat al-Nisa’. to 1350 A.D. [Manuscript/Mixed Material] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2019714465/.
Fig. 2. 72 Hossein Zenderoudi (b. 1937). Tehran Auction Hossein Zenderoudi b 1937 Comments. (n.d.). Retrieved January 7, 2023, from https://tehranauction.com/en/auction/hossein- zenderoudi-b-1937-14/
Fig. 3. A page from an 18th-century Qur’an showing Al-Adiyat in Naskh script … (n.d.). Retrieved January 7, 2023, from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-page-from-an-18th- century-Quran-showing-al-Adiyat-in-naskh-script_fig1_321873971
Fig. 4. File:nastaliq-proportions.jpg – wikimedia commons. (n.d.). Retrieved January 7, 2023, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nastaliq-proportions.jpg
Fig. 4.1 File:nastaliq-proportions.jpg – wikimedia commons. (n.d.). Retrieved January 7, 2023, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nastaliq-proportions.jpg
Fig. 5. Painting by Hossein Zenderoudi sells for 150,000 EUR in Sotheby’s in Paris. Honaronline. (n.d.). Retrieved January 7, 2023, from http://www.honaronline.ir/Section-visual- 4/135436-painting-by-hossein-zenderoudi-sells-for-eur-in-sotheby-in-paris